Главная страница «Первого сентября» • Главная страница журнала «Английский язык» • Содержание №11/2001

BOOKSHELF

THE MORE DICTIONARIES THE BETTER:

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS DICTIONARIES REVIEW

 Students of English often ask which dictionaries are better: monolingual or bilingual. The answer depends on what the students’ level is and what they use dictionaries for. There is nothing inconsistent about having both monolingual and bilingual dictionaries on one’s bookshelf because they fulfil different functions. Lower-level students prefer bilingual dictionaries because the use of their mother tongue gives them confidence and is much easier than to understand definitions in another language. The names of concrete objects, e.g. plants or animals, translated into one’s native language are clearer than definitions like ‘a plant with large pink flowers’. Professional translators and interpreters need precise equivalents to be stored in their memory for quick retrieval. However, in this review I will consider monolingual dictionaries published by Cambridge University Press because they are what this oldest publisher, that also produces bilingual dictionaries, is particularly famous for: Cambridge International Dictionary of English with CD-ROM, Cambridge International Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, Cambridge International Dictionary of Idioms, English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge Dictionary of American English with CD-ROM, and Cambridge Learner’s Dictionary with CD-ROM.

The most serious argument in favour of monolingual dictionaries for intermediate and advanced learners whose aim is an active command of the target language rather than translation, stems from the fact that most words can hardly be properly translated in the full range of their meanings: the latter coincide only partially. For example, the English word ‘trunk’ can be translated as ствол (дерева), туловище, хобот (слона), сундук, багажник. On the other hand, Russian word ‘ствол’ can be translated as trunk, stem, bole, barrel, gun tube, etc. If this ambiguity is typical of simple names of objects, what can we say about more complex abstract nouns such as ‘ambition’, ‘conscientiousness’, ‘fortune’? The results of picking a wrong translation are often amusing like ‘голый кондуктор бежит по рельсам’ in an anecdotal translation of a technical text.

Another argument is the use of context without which the words learnt in isolation are only half-learnt, because the rules of collocation are as strong as grammar rules, but much more difficult to formulate. For example, we cannot say *‘to obtain a telegram’ or *‘to receive experimental results’ though both ‘obtain’ and ‘receive’ mean получать. Similarly, we cannot say *‘a lovely man’, *‘a pretty landscape’, *‘a charming dog’ or *‘an attractive child’ though all the adjectives are very close in meaning. They just do not collocate with these nouns in the same way as the noun ‘rain’ does not collocate with the adjective ‘strong’ but collocates with the adjective ‘heavy’. Monolingual dictionaries, unlike most bilingual ones, usually contain example phrases and sentences which show how the words are most typically used in context.

When we teach or learn a language we need a lot of linguistic information about words, particularly their grammar and usage. For example, the word ‘news’ is singular uncountable (‘No news is good news’); the word ‘foreboding’ is literary, while the word ‘pants’ meaning ‘trousers’ is American, etc. Monolingual dictionaries have usage notes to indicate it, e.g. ‘old use’, ‘taboo’, ‘slang’ and other information.

The first dictionary we are going to consider here is Cambridge International Dictionary of English (CIDE). It was published in 1995 as a result of several years’ detailed language search and analysis and is aimed at learners and users of English from intermediate level upwards. CIDE is one of the most comprehensive English dictionaries: it contains 100,000 words and phrases arranged alphabetically around 50,000 headwords as well as more than 100,000 example sentences showing the words in context. In order to clarify some definitions, it contains more than 2000 vocabulary items illustrated by pictures: animals, plants, clothes, ships and boats, stationary, electrical equipment, musical instruments, kitchenware, etc.

The dictionary is called International because it shows British, American and Australian differences in pronunciation, spelling and meaning. For example, ‘biscuit’ in British English and Australian English is ‘cookie’ in American English, but Australians also call it ‘bikkie’ informally: ‘a flat small cake that is dry, hard and usually sweet’. On the contrary, ‘biscuit’ in American English is ‘a small soft raised bread’. Pronunciation differences are labelled by the signs of pound and dollar for convenience.

As we all know, many words are polysemantic, and their meanings have to be somehow visually distinguished in dictionaries. CIDE uses the so-called guide words printed in capital letters in boxes to make them very conspicuous and easy to find. For example, the word ‘crane’ has three guide words: MACHINE, BIRD and STRETCH.

Collocations, which, as I mentioned above, are very important to know, are specially catered for in CIDE. The most typical combinations with a word are included in its description and printed in bold. However, what is even more important, is the alphabetically organised Phrase Index at the end of the dictionary that helps to find the whole phrase if you remember any part of it. For example, if you want to find the phrase ‘over my dead body’ but vaguely remember it, you look for ‘body’, ‘dead’ or ‘over’ in The Phrase Index and it will refer you to the page and line number in the dictionary where you will find the whole phrase. The Phrase Index is particularly important for such words as ‘get’, ‘give’ or ‘go’ which participate in so many phrases that their search in the dictionary may take a lot of time.

There is one more feature worth mentioning: those words that learners can easily confuse with similar words in their own language have special labels: for example, the words ‘speculate’, ‘camera’, ‘complexion’, ‘magazine’ and the like have the label RUS after their description which acts as a warning signal for Russian learners, and there is a special list of Russian false friends supplied with their Russian translations and placed alphabetically into the page for ‘Russian’.

People who know and love monolingual dictionaries often ask about the difference between them and their computer versions. Of course, the main difference is their use: people who work with computers find it much more convenient to have a CD-ROM, those who prefer traditional ‘paper-books’ or do not have a computer around are happy with a good thick and heavy volume. There are other differences as well. CIDE CD-ROM has sound recordings for every headword, and one can hear native speakers, both British and American, to check and improve one’s pronunciation. Secondly, CIDE CD-ROM has hundreds of new words which have just come into English, such as ‘webmaster’. Finally, CD-ROM has a program for searching the words by meaning. For example, if you want to find all the words that mean ‘surprised’ the computer will supply you with the whole list of them indicating all the differences and shades of meaning.

The next two dictionaries to review are Cambridge International Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs and Cambridge International Dictionary of Idioms. Phrasal verbs and idioms are important aspects of the English language and they are hard to master because the whole meaning cannot be derived from the summary of elements. They make one’s speech truly authentic but they are treacherous too: if you overuse them or disregard their stylistic features you may sound odd, ridiculous or even rude. Cambridge International Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs and Cambridge International Dictionary of Idioms have some common features:

Next to consider is English Pronouncing Dictionary – the latest 15th edition of the famous Daniel Jones’ dictionary first published in 1917. The latest edition that came out in 1997 has over 80,000 entries, of which 18,000 are new, added to serve the needs and interests of today’s users. These new words are connected with science and technology, names of people and places which have acquired fame or notoriety in recent years, international cuisine, etc. For example, the cosmopolitan nature of contemporary life can be seen in such new international words included in the dictionary as ‘shashlik’, ‘pizza’, ‘Mao Tse-tung’, ‘dacha’, ‘paparazzo’, ‘Pinochet’, ‘karaoke’, ’Hezbollah’ and the like, which have already been adopted by English but are not easy for foreign speakers to pronounce.

Another feature is personal names and family names which are not originally English, but according to the latest British census reports, are actively used by the multicultural population of the country: Ishmael, Janacek, Xanthus, Havilah, Zechariah, etc. Native speakers of English also use this dictionary as an authoritative guide to pronunciation of difficult or new words as well as common abbreviations.

Finally, a characteristic feature of the dictionary is inclusion of American pronunciation together with the British one. Sometimes the difference is so important that speakers must be very careful not to mispronounce familiar English words when talking to Americans. For example, the word ‘ballet’ has the second syllable stressed in American English unlike the British English where the first syllable is stressed. This small difference may cause serious misunderstanding if you invite American friends to see a Russian ballet dance – they may think you are inviting them to see a belly dance which means striptease.

Next on our list is Cambridge Dictionary of American English with CD-ROM. It was published in 2000 and contains more than 40,000 frequently used words and phrases. There is still a feeling typical with teachers of English in Russia that it is enough to know one variety of English – British English – to be able to communicate successfully across the globe. In many cases it is so, but not always. An intermediate and advanced speaker of English must be more sensitive to the main varieties of English because differences do not only exist – they become greater with the spread of English as international means of communication. On the other hand, there is a significant effect of American English on British English due to mass media, films and youth culture. According to linguistic research, many British people younger than 25 choose an American word instead of its British equivalent. Besides, many Russian speakers of English have professional contacts with U.S. citizens both here and abroad, work in American companies, do graduate studies in American universities, take American exams like TOEFL and GRE – why should we, teachers, dissuade our students from learning or speaking American English even if our own preference for British English developed by a long-standing educational tradition will never change? The following examples remind us that many things have different names in these two Englishes: petrol – gasoline (gas), lift – elevator, queue – line, rubber – eraser, sweets – candy, trousers – pants, underground – subway, etc. The misuse of the words may cause misunderstanding or even embarrassment: if you say ‘I like your new pants’ to an Englishman he will think you like his underwear; if you say ‘I need a rubber’ to an American he may think that you are looking for a condom. In Cambridge Dictionary of American English these dangerous differences in meaning are printed in capital letters to make them particularly noticeable.

Similarly to CIDE, guidewords printed in capital letters in boxes help to find the necessary meaning of a polysemantic word. For example, the verb ‘pass’ has four entries indicated by four guidewords: GO THROUGH, GIVE, DO WELL, TIME. Most common phrasal verbs are printed in bold within an entry: ‘speak’ is followed by ‘speak for’, ‘speak out’ and ‘speak up’. Similarly, idioms are included in an entry after the definition and example sentences of the headword. Meanings of idioms are also explained and illustrated by example sentences: the verb ‘turn’ in the meaning of CHANGE DIRECTION is followed by idioms ‘turn a profit’, ‘turn one’s back on’, ‘turn back the clock’, ‘turn one’s nose up at something’, ‘turn over in one’s grave’, ‘turn the other cheek’, ‘turn over a new leaf’, ‘turn the tables on someone’, ‘a turning point’, and ‘a turn signal’. All the idioms are also included in the Idioms Index at the end of the dictionary to facilitate their search. Usage labels are numerous and provide a lot of additional information. Unlike many other dictionaries, they distinguish between informal, formal and slightly formal, between dated (words used before the 1970s) and old use (words used before the 20th century) as well as between slang, rude slang and taboo slang. There are labels for approving and disapproving words, trademarks, specialised terms, and even non-standard words that are not correct though often used in speech like alright (= all right), irregardless (= regardless).

An interesting feature of Cambridge Dictionary of American English is called Language Portraits – supplementary pages and tables placed alphabetically inside the dictionary that explain various complexities of English. They teach how to use comma, colon, dash, quotation marks and other punctuation signs. They present Grammar aspects such as Auxiliary Verbs, Reflexive Pronouns, Tenses, etc. Finally, Language Portraits summarise difficult zones of vocabulary: Fractions and Decimals, Symbols and Signs, Price, Dates, etc.

There are two editions of the dictionary: with and without CD-ROM. The latter contains the full text of the book, spoken pronunciation of each entry word and sophisticated software that lets users do the following:

The newest dictionary published by Cambridge University Press is Cambridge Learner’s Dictionary with CD-ROM. It has just come out for intermediate/upper-intermediate students in two versions: with and without CD-ROM. The dictionary contains 35,000 different meanings chosen very carefully to show all the commonest and most useful words that learners need for their study. There are also a lot of words that originate in popular culture and can hardly be found in other dictionaries. Headwords are in colour and easy to find. They are explained in simple words and illustrated by thousands of examples taken from real English, i.e. Cambridge International Corpus. There are 800 pictures, many of them in full colour, that give an instant visual definition. There are also 5000 idioms and 2000 phrasal verbs that learners usually need. Two thousand headwords are marked with a ‘key’ symbol to show that they are the most important words in English. As in other Cambridge dictionaries, guidewords are used to show different meanings of the same word.

Unlike other dictionaries, a learner’s dictionary must be more than a reference book – it must also be a teaching/learning tool. That is why Cambridge Learner’s Dictionary has an additional section in many entries called USAGE: it teaches how to avoid the most common mistakes usually made by foreign learners when they are using the word. For example, USAGE for the word ‘nature’ distinguishes it from the words ‘environment’ and ‘countryside’ by explaining the difference in meaning and providing additional examples. The word ‘difference’ is presented with the preposition changing its meaning: ‘difference between two things’ and ‘difference in something’: the first is used when comparing two things, the second is used when talking about a change in something or someone. How were these problematic areas selected by those who compiled the dictionary? The answer is – by using Cambridge Learners’ Corpus, a collection of texts written by learners of English and coded according to the errors in them. One source of such learners’ texts was Writing Paper in Cambridge exams: mainly, PET and First Certificate. The most typical students’ mistakes were carefully analysed and introduced into the database which then enabled the editors of the dictionary to anticipate the most typical errors and include information in the entries and USAGE notes to help learners avoid them.

 

Cambridge Learner’s Dictionary has a separate study section to help with vocabulary and grammar. For example, in Study Pages for the word ‘Internet’ the following questions are asked and answered: What is the Internet? What is a modem? Is the Internet the same as the World Wide Web? What kind of information is there on a website? What does surf in the Web mean? etc. The questions are followed by exercises which further develop and activate the vocabulary related to the topic.

CD-ROM makes these exercises fully interactive. Besides, it provides sound recordings in British and American English for every word. Students can choose a variety of English they want to master and click to hear a word. They may like to compare British and American pronunciation by listening to both. They can also practice their own pronunciation by recording their own voice and comparing it to the sound on the CD.

There is a thesaurus-type search for words with similar meanings because all the words have been coded into 2000 semantic and topic groups, and clicking on the ‘related words’ button gives an instant thesaurus. For example, one needs only a few seconds to find all the words which mean ‘beautiful’, then find out about differences between them in meaning and collocation. Clicking on the link at ‘angry’ will give a list of 65 words and phrases, including ‘annoyed’, ‘bitter’, ‘indignant’ and ‘livid’. One can also get all the ‘angry’ phrasal verbs and idioms such as ‘go mad’, ‘fly off the handle’ and ‘hit the roof’. It is important for expanding one’s vocabulary but can be absolutely indispensable when writing an essay or preparing a report. When looking through an entry on the CD-ROM students may like to find out more about other features of the word: its derivatives, grammar or usage peculiarities, examples, pictures, etc., – they click and get what they need in no time at all. So we may say that the CD-ROM is a great time-saver apart from being an attractive learning tool for young people.

When reviewing the dictionaries it is hard to say which is better: they are for different purposes and users. Keep yourself informed of all the major dictionaries that have recently been published for English language teaching and you will be able to make a right choice.

By Ludmila Gorodetskaya